Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 4

Money - Essay Example ralian dollar, just as the financing costs as clear in the circumstance of the lodging market, and the joblessness circumstance in the mining business. Ultimately, this paper takes a gander at the current endeavors to direct the money related markets. The wellsprings of information incorporate article from online forms of significant papers, for example, the Australian, just as articles from worldwide monetary organizations, for example, the World Bank and Overseas Development Institute. Other genuine sources, for example, the site of the Australian government have been used. The greater part of the sources incorporate scholarly diaries, for example, Financial Management, McKinsey Quarterly, Cambridge Journal of Economics, and so on., that tackle the issue of worldwide budgetary emergency, from databases, for example, Business Source Premier, Oxford Journals and ABI Inform. The imperceptible hand perspective on the economy, as investigated in the book â€Å"Economics† by Samuelson and Nordhaus, will neglect to exist under two conditions: when there is defective rivalry and flawed data, and when there are showcase externalities. The disappointment in major monetary markets exists on account of both of these conditions. Preceding the monetary emergency, the money related markets, for example, stocks, securities and shared subsidizes markets are viewed as business sectors where the undetectable hand works. The financial exchange has consistently been alluded to as a proficient market by business analysts. As per Brealey, Myers and Marcus, â€Å"the rivalry [in this market] to discover misvalued stocks is exceptional. So when new data comes out, speculators race to exploit it and in this way wipe out any benefit openings (2004, 165).† An effective market, as indicated by Samuelson and Nordhaus in their book â€Å"Economics† is characterized as â€Å"one where all new data is immediately comprehended by showcase members and turns out to be promptly fused into the market costs (2004, 534).† This quality of the securities exchange as a productive market is ascribed to the accessibility of

Identification of Gram negative bacteria using biochemical tests, including API The WritePass Journal

Recognizable proof of Gram negative microorganisms utilizing biochemical tests, including API Dynamic Recognizable proof of Gram negative microscopic organisms utilizing biochemical tests, including API AbstractIntroductionMethodConclusionReferencesRelated Dynamic Four unadulterated, unidentified societies of (gram positive cocci) microorganisms, named A-D were refined on different agar media. Additionally an API test was reenacted to distinguish another unidentified bacterium. Recognizable proof of microorganisms is significant while picking a successful treatment for a microbial-causing sickness. This investigation concentrated on the social and biochemical qualities of microscopic organisms in help of recognizable proof. Under aseptic conditions, every one of the four unidentified bacterium were refined utilizing the bile aesculin, manitol salt and the blood agar plates gave. These were then hatched for longer than a week and afterward watched. A catalase and Voges-proskauer were additionally done to confirm the personality of the 4 strains of microorganisms. Microscopic organisms that delivered air rises in the catalase test (as oxygen is one of the items framed, within the sight of the chemical catalase) and a red shading change for the V oges-proskauer (microorganisms can create a compound called acetylmethylcarbinol), both demonstrative of a positive outcome. For straightforwardness, the end societies were contrasted and a table of results gave in the examination to affirm the personality of Enterococcus faecalis, Micrococcus luteus, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes microorganisms. The primary culture handily recognized as Streptococcus pyogenes  produced a noticeable ÃŽ ²-haemolysis on blood agar; with an undeniable clear zone around the settlements and was additionally incapable to develop on manitol salt agar. Different strains were then decided from the different biochemical tests, as all bacterium have specific attributes that recognize them from other genera. The bacterium utilized in the API was recognized as Staphlyococcus. aureus, by utilization of an ID table, gave by the producer of the API. Anyway in an ordinary setting different tests would need to be led to finish up the sort and typ es of the microbes. Presentation Gram positive and gram negative microscopic organisms have an inflexible cell divider called peptidoglycan and this can be utilized to recognize the two gatherings. Gram positive microorganisms have a thick external layer of peptidoglycan. They likewise have the lipopolysaccharide layer missing. (Madigan et al., 2009) Gram positive microscopic organisms typically seem purple and gram negative microorganisms can be red to pink in shading with the utilization of gram recoloring. (Madigan et al., 2009) When set up the way that the bacterium have a place with gram positive gathering, the Dichotomous Key of Gram Positive microscopic organisms can be utilized to separate microbes by utilization of different biochemical tests. (Willey et al. 2008) The seclusion and distinguishing proof of microorganisms is a fundamental demonstrative instrument in microbiology, particularly researching pathogenic microscopic organisms that cause irresistible ailments. The clinician and microbiologist cooperate in this recognizable proof procedure. (Willey et al. 2008) Samples from the associated tainted territory with a patient can be removed and developed aseptically on agar medium to dodge defilement; these blended societies are then isolated to create single provinces of a class bacterium. The state of the microorganisms can be dictated by microscopy (utilizing gram recoloring or other recoloring procedures for corrosive quick microbes), and refined of the microbes on different media †specific, differential and certain trademark (metabolic) media. (Willey et al. 2008) Selective media just permit certain microscopic organisms to develop, while differential media are utilized to recognize microorganisms from others, within the sight of s ome type of color or pointer. (Madigan et al., 2009)â It is additionally critical to take note of the conditions microscopic organisms can develop in, as some may endure the nearness of oxygen (aerobes) while others won't (anaerobes). The nearness of explicit compounds empowers vigorous microscopic organisms to develop, while anaerobic microorganisms can't. (Madigan et al., 2009)â Voges-Proskauer tests recognize microbes that can create aging, particularly when they can't breathe vigorously. (Willey et al. 2008) At the point when microscopy and refined strategies alone are not sufficient enough to recognize an animal groups, explicit biochemical tests are done. These tests are utilized to take out the quantity of potential pathogens causing the sickness being referred to; by contrasting the unidentified pathogen and the realized metabolic attributes put away on PC databases. (Madigan et al., 2009) These may incorporate testing for items the bacterium may create (because of a nearness of explicit protein/s) or even their capacity to develop on either specific or differential media or a mix of the two. Anyway some require further insightful tests to distinguish the microorganisms. (Madigan et al., 2009)â â A model is the coagulase test, which separates S.aureus from S.epidermidis, coagulase can clump plasma. (Willey et al. 2008)  Once the microscopic organisms have been distinguished, anti-toxin affectability tests (defenselessness tests) might be acted so as to figure out which anti-infe ction/s would be best in treating the sickness identified with the microorganism. (Willey et al. 2008) The capacity of microorganisms to deliver catalase is a significant biochemical trademark, oxygen consuming microbes can emit explicit compounds this trademark can be controlled in distinguishing proof. (Madigan et al., 2009)â Aerobic microscopic organisms can kill hydrogen peroxide (that would some way or another be harmful to it) by changing over it to water and oxygen. Air pocket arrangement would demonstrate a positive consequence of this response occurring. (Greenwood et al., 2007) This test assists with recognizing streptococcus from staphylococcus. (Willey et al. 2008) Further increasingly a few microbes may have the capacity of emitting different proteins like superoxide dismutase and peroxidise. This relies upon the development conditions the microorganisms require, to kill free (unpaired) oxygen radicals that would somehow wreck the ordinary working of bacterial cells. These radicals are the aftereffect of oxygen being decreased in the electron transport chain.â (Willey et al., 2008) Marker mode of blood agar (normally containing horse blood) is utilized for the haemolysis test to show if the bacterium delivers a particular poison (haemolysin) this is a typical destructiveness factor that pathogenic microscopic organisms have. A positive outcome shows the bacterium has this poison. (Willey et al. 2008)â The poison can lyse erythrocytes by framing pores in the cell surface, discharging its substance †hemoglobin and different particles. (Willey et al., 2008) This can be seen on blood-agar as a reasonable radiance with no particular shading around the states, called ÃŽ ²-haemolysis. Fractional (ÃŽ ±) haemolysis leaves a slight green discolouration, as hydrogen peroxide oxidizes hemoglobin to methaemoglobin. (Greenwood et al., 2007) Bile aesculin agar is specific and differential, dark arrangement on the way of life plate would demonstrate the capacity of the bacterium to hydrolyse aesculin and blend in with ferric citrate. (Mahon and Manuselis, 2000) The manitol salt agar is a case of particular media that just permits development of explicit microbes to develop, consequently it tends to be utilized in biochemical tests. This is because of the high convergence of salt inside this medium, which restrains most microbes from developing. (Mahon and Manuselis, 2000) Fast recognizable proof of a microorganism can be controlled by the utilization of an API (Analytical Profile Index) or manual ‘kit’ (Willey et al. 2008)â â that contains 20 microtubules with got dried out substrates, once immunized with microbes and left to hatch; the different wells produce shading changes when reagents are included. These shading changes are identified with the metabolic qualities of explicit microscopic organisms that can be coordinated to a recognizable proof table. The utilization of current innovation empowers one to examine the genomic and antigenic structure of microorganisms and is in this manner helpful in recognizable proof. The utilization of PCR and electrophoresis can be utilized in Multilocus Sequence Typing (MLST) and genomic fingerprinting. (Willey et al. 2008)â â Also the different surface proteins particularly antigens can be distinguished for its communication with specific antibodies by immunofluorescence or agglutination strategy. This strategy may yield quick outcomes and streptococci related with sore throats can be distinguished thusly; anyway these tests are not as precise as the refined strategies. (Champoux et al., 2004) New and increasingly precise advancements are being concentrated, for example, the utilization of Biosensors. (Willey et al., 2008) Staphylococci have a round shape (from the Greek word ‘kokkos’ meaning a berry.) these microbes structure groups like grapes (got from the Greek word ‘staphule’) Staphylococci additionally have a sludge layer, and are principally found on the outside of skin.(Heritage et al., 1999) These aerotolerant anaerobe can develop in either vigorous or anaerobic conditions. In spite of the fact that Staphylococcus aureus is innocuous living on the outside of the skin, it can cause genuine ailment like septicaemia when it enters open injuries. (Mandal et al., 1996) This bacterium can likewise turn into an artful pathogen, liable for scourges like MRSA because of obstruction of the anti-infection methicillin and developing protection from vancomycin. (Willey et al., 2008) A brisk biochemical test called Staphaurex can likewise be utilized. (Willey et al., 2008) Streptococci are facultative anaerobes and don't frame any gas items, as they produce lactic corrosive maturation and will in this manner catalase negative. (Willey et al., 2008)â The streptococcus genera spread a broad gathering of microscopic organisms †the cocci that are round fit as a fiddle and along these lines set into 3 gatherings: pyogenic, oral and other (colon) str

On Friendship

On Friendship In an Uber ride during my freshman year, one of my friends turned to me and asked if I was okay.   “You’re always so bubbly but you’re quiet now” If you had said that statement to any of my classmates from high school, they would not match it to me. For the most part, I didn’t really talk to anyone outside of the people I knew from different extracurriculars or the people who sat next to me in class. I was the proud introvert with a Pinterest board dedicated to being an INTJ.01 One of 16 Myersâ€"Briggs personality types. It stands for introversion, intuition, thinking, judgment. .   So, imagine my shock when everyone else in the car disagreed with my claims of being an introvert. In hindsight, I see their point; I spent a lot of energy trying to maintain this new image for reasons I struggle to justify now.   Was it because I felt the need to redefine myself? I don’t know where I had read this, but someone claimed that most CEOs and/or successful people are extroverts. So, naturally, I thought that I ~had~ to be an extrovert in order to be successful in life.02 False thinking Moreover, In high school, I felt a (self-inflicted) pressure to be introverted in order to satisfy my identity as a shy-smart-nerdy-pants-girl. I truly don’t know why. Maybe it stems from insecurity in my intelligence and capabilities, so I felt the need to subscribe to a stereotype. But here at MIT, everyone is a nErD!!1!!1! Being smart was no longer a distinguishing identity but a common one, so the pressure to uphold some stereotype was lifted.                 Was it in search of a community? Maybe, though it shames me to admit thisa desire for validation however innate it may be. I don’t know where or when the idea of life-long friends was planted in my head, but its roots stretched deep. Unfortunately, something would get in the way of fostering those relationships, some my fault and others beyond my control. Whether it be changing schools or time zones or getting into some petty middle-school argument. 03 I remember getting into this huge mess about either pimples or test grades?? I dont remember lol which makes me angry because adults will be like yOu wOnT cArE aBoUt tHis iN a fEw yEaRs... and theyre right -_- And Im sure a lot could be said about my experiences now and how I wont place so much meaning on them in a few years. But those experiences are valid regardless since theyre shaping me. And statements like the ones above invalidate those moments. I mean, the solution is to not care about what others think, especially elders as I have been taught to value the wisdom of elders and accept their words as facts but this is a rant for another day When I first moved to America, I made all efforts to stay in touch with my best friend Rebecca. We wrote essays back and forth, hers about the latest happenings at school and mine about the novelty of the US, and video chatted every other week. But, as the years went on, the frequency of our contact started to decrease from weekly to monthly to every other month to once a year to nothing. When I switched high schools in my junior year, my best friend and I went from daily interactions to monthly contacts though I had moved less than five miles away.   My mom always insisted that family is the only constant in life, and I didn’t like that statement because it felt too deterministic. What if I didn’t have a good family? Am I to just love them despite their wrongdoings? Excuse their transgressions for the sake of blood? Meh, doesn’t sit right with me.04 As a side note, this is an example of my struggle with balancing having different values than my parents/relatives with filial piety and obedience. but this is another blog post for another day And it didn’t help that I had a track record of all these friendships that would end or fade out for different reasons. Friends can be the family that I get to choose. My relatives are spread out across the world and the love only seems to be growing, why couldn’t that be the case for friends?   All of this plays into my friendship experience at MIT as follows~ I saw MIT as my chance to finally have four years in one place to find my besties for life. I did Interphase, an eight-week pre-college program, and I spent most of my time with a group of people. However, I felt more like an addition than part of the group, and though I wanted to find more friends, I didn’t want to ‘waste’ the time I had already put into building those relationships. I got over this phase by entering my excessive cheerful energy phase.   During this phase, I attempted to cover feelings of loneliness and alienation by acting spirited all the time, which in retrospect was incredibly draining and detrimental. It felt as though I knew a lot of people on a superficial 05 ...which is normal bc the school year had just begun bfacepalm/b level while a lot of people seemed to have established pairs or groups with stronger bonds.   After some time, I got really close to one person and had an established friend group, and my dream was realized. The End :)   Yeah no. So, to keep it brief, some combination of academic, religious, financial, and familial stressors hit me, my close friends, and probably all freshmen in general. Dealing with those can change and shape you, and as I was going through struggles, I started to grow distant to many of those people. This is where I entered my low energy phase.     Initially, I was heartbroken. The ideal that I had poured my heart into had collapsed, and I didn’t have the energy to salvage it. So, that distance grew and grew as we all started to change into different people with different values, and by the summer I just accepted it. So, now I think I’m in a relatively stable phase with a reasonable amount of energy where I can reflect on my stance on friendships.     One thing I have dropped is the extra bubbly energy from the last year because it was not sustainable. But this difference in my behavior makes it seem as though I dislike people (not the case). I also realized I struggle with maintaining casual or surface-level friends. I took a perfectionism workshop last spring that exposed all of my subtle and terrible mental frameworks, a very common one being an all-or-nothing mindset.06 basically means what it says. thinking in extremes, black or white, either-or Generally, when it comes to friendships, I can maintain the ones with deeper roots and the ones with a specific purpose, which mostly boils down to p-set buddies. But when it comes to people that I am vaguely familiar with? s t r e s s. I don’t know where to place them in my existing categories, so I end up treating them like strangers.     Another epiphany that I am slowly digesting is that friendships don’t have to be long-lasting in order to be meaningful.07 Do you see traces of an all-or-nothing mindset too? I mean, I dont blame myself, all-or-nothing is a pretty clear standard that removes the stress of trying to figure out a standard. But ~apparently~ life is a freaking grey mess :( and you need to set a lot of standards and find your balance multiple times. ew adulthood . Removing that pressure is so relieving and allows me to enjoy my friends for as long as they are in my life without any expectations.         I’m writing this because I have confided this to several people, and they have shared similar sentiments.   I’m also presenting this post as an example of what changing and growing could look like. I never thought I would be thinking about all of this since in high school I found my community pretty easily my main concern was my education and getting into a prestigious college,08 /spanDont make this your sole focus, leads to empty and confusing times I promise and the group of people who shared those values were either in the same classes or extracurriculars. But of course, this became the standard once I came here.   For a long time, I blamed MIT for causing all my struggles, but in reality, I was going to struggle where ever I went. And in the end, I’m grateful that I’m learning about myself and my values here, surrounded by beautiful souls and amazing resources that encourage me to flourish. One of 16 Myersâ€"Briggs personality types. It stands for introversion, intuition, thinking, judgment. back to text ? False thinking back to text ? I remember getting into this huge mess about either pimples or test grades?? I don't remember lol which makes me angry because adults will be like yOu wOn'T cArE aBoUt tHis iN a fEw yEaRs... and they're right -_- And I'm sure a lot could be said about my experiences now and how I won't place so much meaning on them in a few years. But those experiences are valid regardless since they're shaping me. And statements like the ones above invalidate those moments. I mean, the solution is to not care about what others think, especially elders as I have been taught to value the wisdom of elders and accept their words as facts but this is a rant for another day back to text ? As a side note, this is an example of my struggle with balancing having different values than my parents/relatives with filial piety and obedience. but this is another blog post for another day back to text ? ...which is normal bc the school year had just begun  facepalm back to text ? basically means what it says. thinking in extremes, black or white, either-or back to text ? Do you see traces of an all-or-nothing mindset too? I mean, I don't blame myself, all-or-nothing is a pretty clear standard that removes the stress of trying to figure out a standard. But ~apparently~ life is a freaking grey mess :( and you need to set a lot of standards and find your balance multiple times. ew adulthood back to text ? Don't make this your sole focus, leads to empty and confusing times I promise back to text ?

The Awakening Critical Analysis - 1596 Words

The Awakening by Kate Chopin Critical Analysis The novel, The Awakening by Kate Chopin, was written during the late 19th century, when the feminist movement was in its infancy. During that era, the novel was yet to be discovered and the few considered it as a disgrace. Many thought that it portrayed a negative example of how a women should think and behave. Women during that era expected the book to be more â€Å"sophisticated† and â€Å"ladylike,† but Chopin had a different view of how women should be portrayed. Today, this novel is a famous classic, read in many schools, and praised by many feminist. Readers can easily surmise the story’s theme: finding one’s identity is not easy. The characters and the setting in this novel contribute to†¦show more content†¦In order for her to do this, she is inspired and influenced by two main characters who help shape the â€Å"Inner Edna.† Two characters that play a significant role in Edna’s life have a positive and a slightly negative effect in her awakening. The first character that has a positive and slightly negative effect in Edna’s life is Adele Ratignolle. Adele was a Creole woman who cared for her three children, loved her husband, was beautiful, followed society’s norms, and was respected in her society. Adele positively influenced Edna’s life when she acted as a â€Å"mother† towards Edna, by often worrying about her and giving her advice. However, Adele was a negative influence in Edna’s awakening because she tried stopping the â€Å"Inner Edna† from coming out. In the novel, Adele advises her to â€Å"think of the children (Chopin 170). She urges Edna to consider the power of motherhood as a special virtue. Adele knew that Edna wanted to be free and liberated from following society’s norms and knew that Edna wanted to be completely independent. T his meant that if she chose to let the â€Å"Inner Edna† come out she would leave behind her husband and two children, because either way Edna never saw herself as a â€Å"mother-women† anyway. In the novel Edna says, â€Å"I would give my money, I would give my life for my children, but I wouldn’t give myself† (Chopin 53). The second character who positively influencedShow MoreRelatedCritical Analysis Of The Awakening1412 Words   |  6 Pagesand desires, reaching untamed worlds. Turning imagination into realism is denounced as an impossible being, but it s in fact the awakening to our lucid dreaming. Edna Pontellier is a woman with a heart that soared beyond the horizons into a limitless world, forced into cage by the inevitable way of life. Kate Chopin through the beautifully sculpted novel â€Å"The Awakening† condemned Edna with a mindset beyond her years, finding meaning through her unsocial actions shunned by the eyes of others. EdnaRead MoreCritical Analysis Of The Awakening1899 Words   |  8 PagesThe Awakening LAP #3 Prompt #3 Ivan Jimenez Period 3 AP Literature and Composition 10/27/17 Just like a coin that is divided into heads and tails humanity is divided into male and female. Both are human just the same but equality is a matter that women have never completely attained. As for almost all of human history women were oppressed by men. Living under patriarchal societies women were forced to conform with their roles as housewives. They were told to keep quiet and were never allowed toRead More Critical Analysis of The Awakening Essay970 Words   |  4 PagesCritical Analysis of The Awakening The Awakening, by Kate Chopin, is the story of a woman who is seeking freedom. Edna Pontellier feels confined in her role as mother and wife and finds freedom in her romantic interest, Robert Lebrun. Although she views Robert as her liberator, he is the ultimate cause of her demise. Edna sees Robert as an image of freedom, which brings her to rebel against her role in society. This pursuit of freedom, however, causes her death. Chopin uses manyRead MoreCritical Analysis: Kate Chopins The Awakening Essay1800 Words   |  8 PagesIn the novel The Awakening, Kate Chopin (2005) uses deep symbolism to show how the main character, Edna Pontellier, discovers her own independence in the society in which she lived. Edna was a traditional mother and wife seeking freedom and independence throughout her adult life. Chopin portrays Edna as being a rebel against her own life. The story takes place in the 1960s when women were to follow certain rules made by the society they lived in . Chopin also foreshadows the things that occur in Edna’sRead More Essay on The Awakening712 Words   |  3 PagesCritical Views of The Awakening      Ã‚  Ã‚   The Awakening, written by Kate Chopin, is full of ideas and understanding about human nature. In Chopins time, writing a story with such great attention to sensual details in both men and women caused skepticism among readers and critics. However, many critics have different views with deeper thought given to The Awakening. Symbolism, the interpretation of Ednas suicide, and awakenings play important roles in the analysis of all critics.    SymbolismRead MoreWolffs Analysis of Chopins The Awakening647 Words   |  3 PagesWolff’s Analysis of Chopin’s The Awakening In her essay Un-Utterable Longing: The Discourse of Feminine Sexuality in Kate Chopins The Awakening, Cynthia Griffin Wolff creates what Ross Murfin describes as a critical whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. (376) By employing a variety of critical approaches (including feminist, gender, cultural, new historicism, psychoanalytic and deconstruction) Wolff offers the reader a more complete (albeit complex) explanation of Edna PontelliersRead More A Deconstructionist Critique of Chopin’s The Awakening Essay536 Words   |  3 PagesA Deconstructionist Critique of Chopin’s The Awakening The multiplicity of meanings and (re)interpretations informing critical studies of The Awakening reveal a novel ripe for deconstructionist critique. Just as Chopin evokes an image of the sea as symbolic of Edna’s shifting consciousness (â€Å"never ceasing, whispering, clamoring, murmuring, inviting the soul to wander in abysses of solitude,†138), likewise the deconstructionist reading of a text emphasizes fluidity over structure: â€Å"A text consistsRead MoreSt. Louis And New Orleans1606 Words   |  7 PagesLouisiana, Chopin was still far from having established herself as a writer whose work was commercially profitable. Under the advice of editors that a longer work would have a broader appeal, she turned again to the novel form, publishing The Awakening in 1899. The Awakening, however, received uniformly unfavorable reviews, and in some cities it was banned from library shelves. In St. Louis, Chopin was dropped by friends and refused membership in a local fine-ar ts club. Chopin had never expected such a stormRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne And The Awakening1416 Words   |  6 Pagesdiscriminated against, but the people close to them as well. This is demonstrated through the novels The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne and The Awakening by Kate Chopin. The Scarlet Letter follows the story of a woman named Hester Prynne who is forced to wear a scarlet letter â€Å"A† on her chest as punishment for her crime of adultery. The Awakening follows the story of a woman named Edna Pontellier and the struggle that she faces when she has an affair and separates from her husband and her familyRead MoreEdna Pontellier and Elizabeth Bennet: Challenge of 19th Century Conventional Methods1344 Words   |  6 Pagesnineteenth century. Both women often challenged conventional societal methods within their works, which inherently caused these literary geniuses to write in complete secrecy. Chopin and Austen gave birth to characte rs such as Edna Pontellier in The Awakening, and Elizabeth Bennett, the renowned protagonist of Austen’s novella Pride and Prejudice. While noble in their respective ways one can easily mistake Edna and Elizabeth to be selfish creatures of society because of their ardent pursuit of happiness

It Should Not Be Compulsory For Everyone At Attend University

It should not be compulsory for everyone to attend University. For some of us, acquiring a university level education is the key to pursuing a successful career, whilst for others, it serves no useful purposes towards life whatsoever. It goes without saying: we all come from different walks of life, and in many circumstances, university education isn’t a necessity for living a pleasurable and prosperous life. So with this being said, shouldn’t we have the right to decide whether or not we want to further our education and attend university? The idea of making university compulsory is completely and utterly preposterous, for if this was to be the case, we may as well just offer the occupation of a brain surgeon to a random drunk off the street. University should continue to be a selective institution and not an obligatory one, so that the Australian economy and workforce can continue to be as robust as what it is today. Searching for an excuse to avoid attending university? Look no further than the fact that the institution leaves your pockets as empty as drums, so much so, that you would be lucky to find a single cent lingering inside after your course. But wait, if university was to be made compulsory, how on earth would our nation be able to afford sending each and every individual to university? Just think about all the meagre, impoverished families that are scattered throughout our communities. These deprived families can barely even afford to purchase sufficientShow MoreRelatedThe Education Of The United Nations971 Words   |  4 Pageseducation in ascending order are as follows such as preschool, primary school, secondary school and then college, university or apprenticeship. Education system may refer to the way education is structured in a county in relation to syllabus, stages, and subjects among other aspects. Most governments recognise a right to education. The United Nations recognizes the right of everyone to education in Article 13. All the member states are bounded by the section of this article. In some places educationRead MoreChina’s Education System1434 Words   |  6 Pageshas become very apparent. Chinese children aged 6 through 15 are required to attend school. China’s education proves to be the strongest system in the world, not only in modern day, but also in the past. The education system of China unmistakably varies in comparison with the United States. Within most countries, students strive to become doctors, engineers, lawyers, etc. Education in China requires students to attend school for 9 years without any objection. In the United States, Americans areRead MoreAmerica’s Education System has drastically changed from the 17th century up until now, many events800 Words   |  4 Pageshome and learned homemaking skills, they were allowed to attend the Dame schools but the curriculum was much different. By 1635, the first Latin grammar school was established in Boston for boys, this school was considered the forerunner of modern high schools and it specifically prepared boys to attend Harvard University built in 1636. The Massachusetts Act of 1642 was the first compulsory education law that required all white children to attend school but did not specify how or where children wouldRead MoreModernization Of The One Generation Will Be The Philosophies Of Government2972 Words   |  12 Pagesgraduate high school and women were not expected to go to college. In the 19th century, our school system expanded, because of state laws, to include a compulsory education for everyone, regardless of their race or gender. Massachusetts became the first US state to pass a compulsory education law in 1852. Mississippi was the last state in 1917 (Compulsory Education). The law required every city to offer primary school for children starting at the age of 6. They mostly focused on grammar and basic math;Read MoreReforms of the German Education System Essay1582 Words   |  7 Pagesthat more or less corresponds to A levels, allows them to go to university. The average pupils attend the so-called ‘Realschule, and the weak ones go to the ‘Hauptschule for five respectively six years. Afterwards they can do an apprenticeship or, if they want to study, go to grammar school for another three years. Those pupils, who have real problems with reading, mathematics, articulating or who have conspicuous behaviour attend another separate school: the ‘Sonderschule. The problems andRead MoreThe International Journal Of Intercultural Relations1530 Words   |  7 Pagesignorance (alone) is the root of most intolerance. The fact that different factors clearly exist, whether one accepts the present structure or one of the others established in research, suggests that strategies aimed at improving racial attitudes should be multifaceted.† (Baldwin, Day and Hecht 572) The complex essence of racism could be the reason that UC is failing. In most UC programs, the main objectives are to spread awareness and increase diversity through support for those who work to promoteRead MoreWHAT A COLLEGE EDUCATION BUYS1005 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿WHAT A COLLEGE EDUCATION BUYS Christopher Caldwell, the author of â€Å"WHAT A COLLEGE EDUCATION BUYS† presents his idea on college education of a 4-year college degree in American. The author’s assertion that college degree is not for everyone; it is something superb and looks like prime but it does not guarantee graduates’ practical productivity and usefulness in the particular professions or fields. 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The Fundamentals of Historical Essay Topics Revealed

The Fundamentals of Historical Essay Topics Revealed Anyway, direct and indirect quotes are essential to support your understanding of academic writing style. A superb collection historical analysis essay topic that'll be suitable to anybody is hard to find, because everyone has their own preferences. You will need to back up your viewpoint with well-researched facts and data too. If you don't have an urge to waste time on choosing the best topic and writing the entire argumentative essay from scratch, don't forget you've a loyal group of professionals by your side. All you will need is the proper topic. By way of example, how to make the absolute most out of your Saturday afternoon isn't a fantastic topic (although all of us know it's sleeping in and watching cartoons). Employing code you are able to make programs that may answer math issues, which would take someone, days to calculate in a succinct second. Furthermore, the points you communicate have to be factual. This way you'll restrict your topics to the one which is most appropriate for you. Talking over your favorite topic with your supervisor should hopefully avoid choosing a poor topic. The Historical Essay Topics Trap The latest history analyses the woman strategies which have been used to permit the women get in the male dominated areas. You should read enough small business ideas from successful businessmen. Most men take jobs that may consist of dangerous pursuits. Men in the majority of work places work for longer hours in comparison with women. What can be done in order to make a more well-rounded curriculum for middle and higher school students. Students are occasionally overwhelmed when asked to create original, critical work. Well, here you'll locate unique items for each college student. Historical Essay Topics: No Longer a Mystery For students, writing such a document is among the several assignments that they should do. Write a list of ideas you've got or a list of things you're interested in. The process isn't easy if you don't have enough details. In addition, you get unlimited revisions. The writing process is going to be a pleasure, and your reader will delight in reading your bit of academic writing. A good example will give a general idea. In any case, it must attract your readers' attention, and thus it ought to be brief and right to the point. Your reader will have the ability to tell too. Or the paper might concentrate on medical discoveries, like the polio vaccine or penicillin. There are a lot of sources that you can acquire historical details on gender. From political instability to the dearth of food, there's a lot we want to go over. Find out more about the very first decade of film production to learn what themes were most common. Take into consideration the subject of the history essay you've already written before. If you wish to compose a very good history essay you'd better pick a topic that's familiar to you. Deciding upon the proper essay topic can at times be rather hard. Deciding on the topic for your essay could possibly be the hardest part. Don't forget, proposal essays serve a purpose outside academia. Because they are a type of argumentative essay, you want to be sure the essay is worthy of an argument. Narrative essays serve wide range of purposes. An argumentative essay requires you to choose a topic and have a position on it. What You Should Do to Find Out About Historical Essay Topics Before You're Left Behind For instance, in college, you might be requested to compose a paper from the opposing standpoint. Perhaps you still must understand more about the way to compose a history paper. To begin with, the paper is passed through Copyscape application to ensure it's not plagiarized. It is an impossible task to write a very good history paper if you write about something you find boring and don't care about whatsoever. With the aid of such template, you can generate a prosperous paper on any political, religious or another leader. Besides, you're permitted to communicate directly with the writer handling your paper so you can make any clarifications. As a historian you must interrogate your sources and ask the crucial questions. Even if you're a specialist in a particular field, don't be afraid to use and cite external sources.

Review on Valued Resources of an Organization - Free Sample

Question: Give the literature review on valued resources of an organization? Answer: Introduction The most valued resources of an organization are its human resources. Proper utilization of the human resources is the key factor of success of any organization. Although the concept of HR is a new concept, it has gained wide significance over the years and now by far employers agree to the fact that hr functions play a very significant role in the sustainability as well as profitability of an organization and hence are now keen on implementing hr policies in their organizations. The major functions of an HR includes recruitment, selection, training and development, performance appraisal and evaluation, human resource planning, formulating HR strategies, remuneration or compensation or payroll, handling legal issues, responsibility for the proper maintenance of the rules and regulations within the organization and last but not the least, making optimum utilization of the available human resources(Humanresourceexcellence.com, 2015). Apart from all the functions mentioned above one of the most important functions of the human resource department is building and maintaining long-term intra-organizational as well as inter-organizational relationships as industrial relations plays a very important role in the growth and sustainability of a firm and is also helpful in proving overseas exposure to the firm (A. Carrillat, dAstous and Morissette Grgoire, 2014). The management of the day-to-day activities of a firm becomes very difficult in the absence of a human resource department. The HR department is also responsible for proper engagement of the employees towards the achievement of the objectives of the organization. Employee engagement activities such as simulation, sensitivity or T- training, role-plays, In-basket exercises, etc. are all the part of training and development of the employees, and, as a result, of the entire organization as a whole, which is an important HR function. Solving disputes and resolution of conflicts is also one of the major functions of t he HR department, the human resource manager acts as a mediator between the conflicting parties. The HR department is also known as the core integral part of the organization or the central part of the organization as it is responsible for the workings and the administration of the entire organization. It is the duty of the HR to maintain the overall health of the organization, make desired improvements wherever needed and also to make strategies to meet the requirements of the future and ensure that it is implemented at the right place and at the right time (Abd Rahman et al., 2013). The performance of the entire organization depends upon the performance of the human resource department, as it is responsible for the functioning of the entire organization, and in case there are any issues or problems related to the employment conditions, or of the employees on an individual level, it the foremost duty of the human resource professional to solve those problems and provide answers to their queries. HR functions also help in maintain proper industrial relations which plays a very important role in the overall growth of the company. HR functions is all about taking care of the human resources of the company which are its capital assets and which play a very important role in the overall development of a company. HR functions have now been successful in letting its importance felt in the world of business as many companies have recorded significant growth after the implementation of the HR policies and procedures (Batterham, 2014). Literature Review According to Bratton J and Gold J, human resource management is nothing but a strategic approach towards the management of the relationship between an employer and an employee, which lay emphasis on the fact that leveraging the capabilities of employees is very important and very critical to gain sustainable competitive advantage over the others in business, which is followed by implementing certain programs and policies. The actual importance lies in the fact that how much the organization is capable of utilizing its human resources as the capital. Iftikar M says that an HR is an able partner of the business, whose job is to run the business and make it a successful alliance by generating profit. The definitions, views and prospects of human resource management have changed over the years. Earlier, as early as the 1980s, it was considered that human resource deals with personnel factors only and only monetary factors are important to engage people at work and get the best out of the m, it is now considered that the factors other than the monetary factors that is the social factors such as trust, growth, loyalty, rewards, etc. are essential for retaining employees and optimizing their efforts towards achieving organizational goals (Baum and Kabst, 2014). Apart from the employee engagement activities, which come to play in the later stage, the initial stages of recruitment and selection plays a very important for searching and appointing the most appropriate candidates for the available vacancies, as the appointment of the right candidates for the right positions is very important for the ultimate success of the organization (Constance, 2012). The IT sector of a developing country has observed a huge amount of growth over the recent few years, and this is the result of appointment of right professionals for the right posts, and the ability of the companies to retain their loyal and efficient employees, which is a result of the proper implementation of the HR poli cies in the related companies. Proper recruitment and selection process can do wonders for a company, by proving the right kind of people in the right place and at the right time (Fawad Latif, 2012). The role of human resource management is mostly considered to be inclined towards the humanitarian factors; its all about managing the human resources, optimizing their level of performance, providing them job satisfaction so that they can achieve the objectives of the company both effectively and efficiently, without compromising with their own desires, needs and wants. It also helps the employees to achieve their individual career goals and also the goals of the company, by aligning their individual goals with the goals of the company(Trinet.com, 2015). Human resource planning is an important of the human resource management; it is mostly done for the proper analysis of the job, for demand forecasting, supply forecasting, and was also used for determining the strengths and weakness of the employees or the human resources of a company and also to develop their competencies and skills for achieving the objectives of the organization (Fominih, 2013). A well trained and a well equipped labor force is required to compete with the global competitive market environment. The increase in the number of competitive rival forces has led to the decrease in the economic success of the organizations. The sudden changes in the technologies, the change in the demography of the workforce, the cultures and the change in climate, widespread use of science and technology requires the HR manager to develop strategies accordingly to maximize the utilization of the workforce. It is the duty of a HR manager to enhance the knowledge, skills and abilities of the employees as they are the corporate assets of an organization (Gilley, Gilley and McMillan, 2009). According to a survey conducted in the manufacturing sector, there are strong evidences which proves that the programs related to the training and development, compensation and other related benefits such as the fringe benefits, medical benefits, retirement benefits, etc., and, proper practices of recruitment and selection have a positive influence on the performance of the employees and hence, on the performance of the organization as a whole. Hence, one can conclude that human resource practices are linked to the higher productivity and the financial performance of the company. Although the HR policies and procedures vary from one organization to the other, the basic features of the HR functions remains the same (Ganesh and Indradevi, 2015). One of the most vital functions of the HR department is that of motivation, that is motivating the workforce, in order to motivate an individual to pursue a certain course of action which is directed towards achieving certain specific goals, which relates to certain specific outcomes, and an individual chooses to achieve those outcomes with a great sense of vitality and perseverance (Hassi, 2011). One can relate this to the needs, drives and incentives (needs-drives-incentives) theory of work motivation, where drives are generated to satisfy the needs, while incentives are required to gratify the drives. The content theories of work motivation as well as the process theories of work motivation, laid down by the researchers and scholars in the field of HR, suggests ways as to what motivates people as well as how to motivate people. Only highly motivated employees are satisfied with their jobs, take pride in whatever they do, and hence remain loyal towards the organization and work har der to achieve organizational goals. HR audit is an evaluation of the HR functions over a period of time, it is the measure of the effectiveness of the HR functions, that is whether or not its implementation is useful for the organization or not (Kramar, 2013). HR functions also includes the on boarding of the new employees, is responsible for making them comfortable in the new environment, also monitors the time and attention of the entire lot of employees of an organization, they are also responsible for reviewing the termination of employees and also guiding them accordingly, and is also responsible for the tax as well as benefits administration of the employees, along with the management of their performances as well as legal compliance as well(Werner, 2014). One of the HR functions which is the performance appraisal, which is the part of the non-training activities of the process of human resource development, which can be defined as the objective assessment of the performance of an individual against well-defined benchmarks, helps to judge the performance of the individual employee of the company and also helps to reward or to punish the employee accordingly, it also helps in determining the progress of the company within a certain period of tim(Kromrei, 2015)e . The objectives of the performance appraisal system of a company can be summed up as it helps to take decisions regarding the promotions of the employees, it also helps to confirm the services for the employees that is if an employee working on a temporary basis is found to be capable and loyal enough, he can be appointed on a permanent basis, it also helps in the evaluation and in the assessment of the training and the development needs of the employees, is also helps in deciding on the system of pay packages and also helps to the communication system within the organization. HR functions are responsible for maintaining the health of the organizations so that they can withstand the competitive forces as well as the ever changing environment of business (Lyddon, 2013). Moreover change is evident and unavoidable, especially in the business world, and it is in the human psychology to avoid change. It the duty of the human resource manager to avoid the resistance of change by implementing any means possible and the ethical means include negotiation, effective communication, effective leadership, etc. whereas unethical means includes cooptation, coercion, manipulation, etc. Managing change within the internal environment of the company is a huge challenge for the human resource manager (Mahajan, Shukla and Soni, 2015). The functions of the human resource management need to be proactive, commercial, strategic and professional. The HR professionals needs to support the transformation of the organization, work on the structure and design of the organization, planning the learning, training and development programs for the employees, is also answerable to the customers and clients, to analyze and administer the overall functioning of the organization and p rovide suggestions for improvement if required, to keep the organization prepared for facing future challenges. HR functions are carried forward mostly by the line managers, but in order to successfully implement the policies and procedure of HR full cooperation and support is needed from the employees side also because it is them on whom the policies and procedures will be implemented upon (Manoharan, Muralidharan and Deshmukh, 2010). HR practices have a direct impact on the performance of the employees. In a research survey it has been found that HR practices are directly linked to business strategies, and organizational performance as a whole. It was also found in a survey among the employees of the corporate sector that HR practices had a strong impact on the return of assets, growth in the values of the stock as well as in the values of the sales as well, and also on the performance variables of the employees (Mohd.Yusoff, Abdullah and Ramayah, 2009). Training and development of the workforce provides competitive advantage to a firm as it helps to remove the performance deficiencies, helps to retain the employee for a longer period of time, it also helps to minimize the rate of accidents, scraps and damages, and also helps to meet the future need of the employees. Of the job training activities such as simulation in which the actual work environment is duplicated so as to give a realistic feeling to the employee and sensitivity or T training, in which a group of trainees perform role-plays, in-basket exercises, and business games, etc. so that the employees gain knowledge about not only their own behavior but also the behavior of others, all these activities helps to build intra-group as well as inter-group cohesiveness, as it is said that groups and individuals are the basic units of an organization(Mpungose, 2013). Although proper planning for the training programs is required as to when and where it needs to be carried out, who will be the trainers and the trainees, and what kind of training is required, etc. The purpose and importance of another HR function that is recruitment can be stated as follows-it helps to rightly determine the present and future requirements of the personnel in the organization, it also helps to increase the pool of job candidates at a minimum cost, it helps to increase the success rate of the process of selection and hence ensures that that the candidates once recruited will be selected, it also helps to meet the legal requirements of the hiring process, and also helps an organization to met its social obligation in the process of hiring candidates, and finally it helps to increase the overall effectiveness of the organization(Mphahlele, 2013). HR functions are very important for the overall development of an employee, as it helps in conducting an assessment on the entire operations of the organization system in order to examine whether all the employees are receiving the services entitled for them and also ensures that they deliver best of their efforts towards achieving organizational goals. Apart from the benefits provided to the employees, the organization also needs the strategic and the transactional services of the HR, for the overall development of the company that is for monetary gains as well as for non-monetary gains. HR services have made their importance felt over the years and now the employers are on hiring HR professionals for the generation of both profits as well as savings (Mr Gaurav Kochhar, 2012). HR functions are all about approaching the people or the candidates, on boarding them, training and developing them and hence preparing them for achieving their objectives as well as the objectives of the orga nization, motivating them and inspiring them and last but not the least retaining them, as it has been seen that the employees who serve the company for a longer period of time are loyal towards their company and also work hard for achieving the goals of the company, companies do benefit from the timely suggestions provided by them as well (Pekruhl, 2013) . HRM practices also help a company to establish its business in the overseas market, as it helps in understanding the cultures, attitudes and behavior of diverse group of people around the world. The transformation of the practices of personnel administration due to the implementation of the HR practices in China is worth to notice, no wonder China is doing great on the business front and has been able to sustain a steady economic growth due to the growth in the business sector (Ugoda, 2012). Chinese labor market was tough challenge to handle mostly for the MNCs to set up their business in China, and it was quite a difficult task to attract and recruit as well as retain the right kind of labor force, with the proper implementation of the HR practices this target was achieved. Proper training provided to the local people helped in achieving the objective effectively and efficiently. With the help of or rather more specifically with the adoption of HRM practices in China, it was able to attract to attract significant amount of foreign investors, and, as a result, China is now considered to be one of the biggest markets in the world and no company can be successful globally, without having an established market in the country China (Pilvinyte, 2013). Even the MNCs of Ireland have benefited from the use and implementation of the HR practices, as it has helped to establish their business both in the foreign market as well as in the local market of Ireland (Thakore, 2013). While a study on the companies of the UK states that, in the UK, the companies tend to follow three types of HR functions, and they are as follows the HR function which is autonomous in nature, in which the national level of management is done by their own senior management that is the senior management of the host country, they are not concerned with the issues or the markets outside the boundaries of the country, another type of the HR function includes a tight or controlled HR function, in which the national level HR is controlled tightly or rather strictly monitored by the higher levels of management outside the host country that is at the regional level or at the corporate level, etc., and the last type of the HR function includes the limited autonomy type o f the HR function, where the host country has the right to implement certain policies on the international basis and also has certain influences in crafting the international HR policies (Rakowska, Valdes-Conca and de Juana-Espinosa, 2015). The human resource information system also helps in spreading the business globally. In fact the Americans were the highest users of the human resource information system which is nearly 70% of the total usage in the world, as indicated by a survey, in which the service sectors were the highest users of the human resource information system (Rao, 2015). Some of the HR practices have a huge impact on the employee satisfaction, which includes proper selection, training and development according to the needs of the employee as well as according to the need of the organization as well (Stiehl et al., 2015). The placement of the right kind of people at the right place and at the right time not only motivates the employee but also encourages him to take pride in whatever work the individual is doing, which not only provides him satisfaction, but also helps him to reduce and manage stress at the work place both effectively as well as efficiently (Rogers, 2012). The motivated worker is also profitable for the company as he is more productive and loyal to the company, and a token of reward from the company enhances his level of motivation, this also helps the company to retain its loyal employees. The HR of a company also provides advice to draft the career path to the employees which also helps to achieve the personal career goals of an ind ividual and as a result also helps in the career of an employee. An example from the corporate world is as follows The company COSTCO which is a US based company have been successful in not only sustaining in the market for a longer period and become a well-established company but has been recording a steady growth in terms of profits as well (Sheehan and Cooper, 2011). This has been possible because the company has been able to implement the HR functions both effectively as well as efficiently. The company takes care of its employees, respects them, has given them the right to participate in the decision making process of the company, the employees as a result are happy and satisfied with their jobs, and, as a result, are more productive and loyal towards the company. The leadership styles followed by the company which includes transformational leadership style, democratic or participative leadership style, affiliative leadership style have proved to be a blessing for the company (Ryu and Kim, 2013) . Conclusion HR functions have a great impact on the overall effectiveness of the organization, as it not only helps the organization to sustain for a longer period of time in the business world but also helps to gain profits. It has been seen that the organizations which have implemented and followed the HR policies and procedures have observed an immediate growth in their businesses, as they have been able to recruit the right kind of workforce at the right time and at the right place, they have been able to motivate as well as provide job satisfaction to their employees, the employees are to maintain a healthy relationship with the company as a result of the employee engagement activities, and hence, the employees turn out to be more productive and loyal towards the company. HR functions not only helps to empower the employees but also helps to increase their level of performance and make the maximum utilization of the workforce as much as possible. Many companies specially the ones which are small and have lesser number of employees either do not feel the need to hire HR professionals or are keen on also help them to understand other people and mix with them and also help them to gain their outsourcing the HR services for their companies, but it is always better for a company to have its own HR department to make the maximum use of the HR policies and procedures as well as HR functions. HR functions are responsible for optimizing the performance of an individual by providing him the required training, developing their skills, knowledge and abilities, giving them proper advice on how they should proceed in their career path in order to record a growth in their career, helps to minimize the conflicting situations, helps to build inter-group as well as intra-group relationships, and also helps them to avoid the resistance to chance as change is evident and unavoidable and also them to take pride in whatever work they are doing. Employee engagement activities and the rotati on of jobs within the company relieve the employees from the boredom of their jobs, and knowledge. An HR function not only helps to build relationships within the organization but also outside the organization, that is it helps in building inter-organizational as well as inter-organizational relationships. It is also helpful in maintaining proper and healthy industrial relations which helps in spreading of the business globally. The HR functions of recruitment, training and development and performance appraisal helps in the engagement of the employees with the organization. It also helps to assess and evaluate the training and development process of the individual, helps to appraise the performance of the individual and help the employees to increase their overall potential, and also takes care of the entire administration of the organization as a whole, and, as a result, helps the organization to sustain as well as succeed in the world of business. The HR functions relate to the hu man resources of an organization and aims at maximizing their potential for achieving the objectives of the organization. The importance of the HR functions, HR policies and procedures have been realized by the employers over the years, and HR functions has been gaining significant importance since then, unlike the earlier times when it had no importance. References Carrillat, F., dAstous, A. and Morissette Grgoire, E. (2014). Leveraging social media to enhance recruitment effectiveness. Internet Research, 24(4), pp.474-495. Abd Rahman, A., Imm Ng, S., Sambasivan, M. and Wong, F. (2013). Training and organizational effectiveness: moderating role of knowledge management process. Euro J of Training and Dev, 37(5), pp.472-488. Batterham, P. (2014). Recruitment of mental health survey participants using Internet advertising: content, characteristics and cost effectiveness. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 23(2), pp.184-191. Baum, M. and Kabst, R. (2014). The Effectiveness of Recruitment Advertisements and Recruitment Websites: Indirect and Interactive Effects on Applicant Attraction. Human Resource Management, 53(3), pp.353-378. Constance, S. (2012). From creator to conduit the role of learning functions in managing knowledge and networks. Strategic HR Review, 11(6). Fawad Latif, K. (2012). An integrated model of training effectiveness and satisfaction with employee development interventions. Industrial and Commercial Training, 44(4), pp.211-222. Fominih, K. (2013). SOCIO-CULTURAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ASPECTS OF HUMANRESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE INNOVATIVE ACTIVITIES. Management of the personnel and intellectual resources in Russia, 2(5). Ganesh, M. and Indradevi, R. (2015). Importance and Effectiveness of Training and Development. MJSS. Gilley, A., Gilley, J. and McMillan, H. (2009). Organizational change: Motivation, communication, and leadership effectiveness. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 21(4), pp.75-94. Hassi, A. (2011). International briefing 23: training and development in Morocco. International Journal of Training and Development, 15(2), pp.169-178. Humanresourceexcellence.com, (2015). Importance of Human Resource Management | Human Resource Excellence. [online] Available at: https://www.humanresourceexcellence.com/importance-of-human-resource-management/ [Accessed 12 Aug. 2015]. Kramar, R. (2013). Beyond strategic human resource management: is sustainable human resource management the next approach?. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25(8), pp.1069-1089. Kromrei, H. (2015). Enhancing the Annual Performance Appraisal Process: Reducing Biases and Engaging Employees Through Self-Assessment. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 28(2), pp.53-64. Lyddon, D. (2013). Historical Studies in Industrial Relations 2013: v. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. Mahajan, K., Shukla, S. and Soni, N. (2015). A Review of Computerized Payroll System. IJARCCE, pp.67-70. Manoharan, T., Muralidharan, C. and Deshmukh, S. (2010). Analyzing the interaction of performance appraisal factors using interpretive structural modeling. Performance Improvement, 49(6), pp.25-35. Mohd.Yusoff, Y., Abdullah, H. and Ramayah, T. (2009). HR Roles Effectiveness and HR Contributions Effectiveness: Comparing Evidence from HR and Line Managers. IJBM, 4(2). Mphahlele, M. (2013). Human resource development at Tumela Mine. Mpungose, S. (2013). Strategic leadership and the implementation of human resource development strategy at the Gauteng Department of Roads and Transport. Mr Gaurav Kochhar, M. (2012). Effectiveness of Performance Appraisal System in Large and Medium Size Manufacturing Organisations. IOSR Journal of Business and Management, 6(4), pp.63-83. Pekruhl, U. (2013). Human Resource Management ; 2013. Zurich: WEKA. Pilvinyte, M. (2013). Perceptions of organisational justice, restorative organisational justice and their relatedness to perceptions of organisational attractiveness. Rakowska, A., Valdes-Conca, J. and de Juana-Espinosa, S. (2015). Affecting Factors of Public Employees Ganizational Commitment. International Journal of Synergy and Research, 3, p.5. Rao, P. (2015). HRM trends in India a professional perspective. Strategic HR Review, 14(1/2). Rogers, R. (2012). Leadership communication styles: a descriptive analysis of health care professionals. Journal of Healthcare Leadership, p.47. Ryu, S. and Kim, S. (2013). First-Line Managers' HR Involvement and HR Effectiveness: The Case of South Korea. Human Resource Management, 52(6), pp.947-966. Sheehan, C. and Cooper, B. (2011). HRM outsourcing: the impact of organisational size and HRM strategic involvement. Personnel Review, 40(6), pp.742-760. Stiehl, S., Felfe, J., Elprana, G. and Gatzka, M. (2015). The role of motivation to lead for leadership training effectiveness. International Journal of Training and Development, 19(2), pp.81-97. Thakore, D. (2013). Training - A Strategic HRM Function. ILSHS, 11, pp.84-90. Trinet.com, (2015). Why is Human Resources Important? | Importance of an HR Department | TriNet. [online] Available at: https://www.trinet.com/resources/industry_articles/doweneedanhrdepartment.htm [Accessed 12 Aug. 2015]. Ugoda, M. (2012). Human resource development as a tool for local government development. Werner, J. (2014). Human Resource Development Human Resource Management: So What Is It?. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 25(2), pp.127-139.

Crisis Intervention Essays - Crisis Intervention, Law Enforcement

Crisis Intervention Jackqueline Wimberly HN220 Melissa Neeley May 27, 2017 Crisis Intervention Jill is a nurse who is going through heartache and abuse fro m her husband. She is trying everything to please her husband, but it seems like nothing is enough. She comes for help trying to get over her situation, so that her marriage can become better. She is also putting her husband through medical school, which is not enough for her husband. Her duty is to help others, but she needs help now. She is afraid her husband will do something to her if he finds out that she is coming for help and telling someone her situation. In the entire of the paper, the writer will help Jill through the AB C Model of Crisis Intervention and help her overcome her situation by offering advice. Building Rapport It is important to make sure Jill is comfortable telling you everything about her situation, Building rapport helps Jill open up more and more. Without Jill saying it, the writer already know she us experiencing abuse from her husband, Building rapport is important for the person who is doing the intervention. The way to build rapport to show empathy, listen to what the client is saying, and asking closed-ended questions leading to open-ended questions. Showing empathy shows that you care what happens to Jill. Jill will feel that you care and not sympathetic. Listening to Jill talk without interrupting her is important because Jill will feel free to express herself. She will feel comfortable talking to you because you are attentive and listens well to how she feels. When a sking closed-ended questions in the beginning will help her start opening up and then when you sart asking open-ended questions she will feel comfortable answering them. Building rapport is also about using basic attending skills. The primary purpose of using the basic attending skills is to gain a clear understanding of the internal experience of t he crisis as the client sees it (Kanel, 2015). This will help you feel what the client is feeling so that you can see how to find out why the client feels the way they feel. Identifying and Breaking down the Problem This is the most important step in crisis intervention. This will push Jill over the edge, but also help her figure out the issue and be able to figure out how to cope. Before coping, you have to figure out the underlying issue. The main problem with Jill and her husband is that Jill is sexually unresponsive. This mean Jill is not able to have intercourse with her husband. This angers her husband so he beats her and possibly rapes her. This is all guesses to what happens, but Jill will answer the open-ended questions that will tell you what is going on in her marriage. The ABC model is there to help counselors with clients. The most effective counselors become so well-versed in the various aspects of this model that they do not appear mechanical to the client (Kanel, 2015). This is why this step in the ABC model is important and useful to the counselor because this will help Jill look deeper into her marriage. Precipitating Event This is the where, who, and why of identifying the problem. Jill will be able to tell you why she called for the appointment. The counselor finds out what happened to make her seek help after dealing with this with her husband. Asking questions is important in finding out the problem between her and her m arriage. Why do Jill seek help? How long has the problem lasted? Why she feels the way she feels? A counselor can ask these questions in order to figure out the problem with Jill and her husband. Knowing the precipitating even will help counselors figure out the best coping methods. A helpful strategy is learning when the client started to feel bad, which helps pinpoint the triggering event (Kanel, 2015). Perception of the Event How Jill view the problem or event will help the counselor know what she is feeling. Usually, stress originates from one of four areas: loss of control, loss of self-esteem, loss of nurturance,

The First Amendment and Its Impact on Education Essay Example

The First Amendment and Its Impact on Education Essay Example The First Amendment and Its Impact on Education Essay The First Amendment and Its Impact on Education Essay The First Amendment and its Impact on Education Patricia Thomas AED/204 Gail Cargile November 4, 2010 Battle over Pledge Arguments over the Pledge and specifically over the phrase â€Å"under God,† have caused people to wonder about the First Amendment stating â€Å"Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion. † California has already banned the Pledge in three public school districts due to the reference to God. Public schools are funded by the government and the phrase conflicts with the government’s endorsement of a religion. The phrase â€Å"under God† was not part of the original Pledge, it was added in 1954. Some argue that the phrase divides us on a religious basis. Students are not required to say the Pledge of Allegiance or they can say it, and just omit the â€Å"under God† phrase while reciting, the Supreme Court ruled in 1943. Battle over the Pledge. Weekly Reader News-Senior, 84 (10), 2. (2005). Retrieved from MasterFILE Premier Database on November 4, 2010. Stand on Ceremony Some say that school children understand that the Pledge of Allegiance is a patriotic exercise and not a religious one. Others are under the argument that a prayer in school or at school ceremonies puts the students and attendees in the midst of a religious ceremony. For example, graduation ceremonies typically will make some sort of religious reference whether through a speech or a prayer, but students do not have to attend graduation, they do have to attend school where the debate is over the Pledge. Some are arguing that the Pledge and other examples that are being used to show how religion has made its way into government functions are simply ceremonial and patriotic. Others argue that this interferes with the separation of church and state. Stand on Ceremony. New Republic, 229 (18), 11. (2003). Retrieved from Academic Search complete database on November 4, 2010. Is Student-Led Prayer at Public High School Football Games Unconstitutional? The Sante Fe Independent school district in 1995 adopted a policy that allowed students to select a classmate to deliver a â€Å"message or invocation† prior to home football games. Many students and their parents filed suit over the school policy stating that it was a violation of the First Amendment. Arguments are that it violates the student’s right to free speech however counter arguments are that allowing the students free speech will violate the Establishment Clause and the mandated separation of church and state. Sekulow, J. (2000). Is Student Led Prayer at Public High School Football Games Unconstitutional? Supreme Court Debates 3, (5), 142. Pro and Con. Retrieved from MasterFILE Premier Database on November 4, 2010 Saving the Pledge The House of Representatives voted to strip the court of jurisdiction in September 2004 with the Pledge Protection Act not allowing any Pledge case to go through federal courts. The Pledge Protection Act prevents all federal courts from hearing cases that challenge the constitutionality of the Pledge. Those in favor of keeping the phrase â€Å"under God† in the Pledge should hope that the Senate will kill the Protection Act for it may increase the chance that â€Å"under God† will be found unconstitutional. This leaves some states to keep the phrase and some to dismiss it due to confusion in the courts. Students cannot be punished for not participating in the Pledge. The argument really comes down to interpretation of the phrase itself. Some say that the â€Å"under God† phrase is historical and patriotic and stands for what our country was founded for, freedoms. Other says that it was not part of the original Pledge and should be omitted. Munoz, V. , Saving the Pledge. First Things: A Monthly Journal of Religion and Public Life, (149), 8-10. (2005). Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database on November 4, 2010.

Aristotle on property and family Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Aristotle on property and family - Essay Example According to the theories of Socrates, there should be no private property in the ideal community. Aristotle had a different point of view on this issue. He supposed that women and children belong to some male individuals and therefore can also be referred to as property. It is possible to imagine what will happen if all citizens would have the right to use the wives and children of each other. Aristotle has limited the sharing of property to several cases which would bring the benefits to the state. For example, he explained when the soil can be common (Lear 214-215): (1) the soil can be common and the products from it can be used for common consumption; (2) the soil can be common only if it is cultivated in common and the products are divided among the individuals for the private purposes. Aristotle has made one important point which makes it clear that common sharing of goods will not be beneficial for the state. When people share equally all of the benefits, those who labor much will always be dissatisfied with those who labor less but receive the same reward. As Aristotle has noted, it has been always very difficult for the men to have all human relations in common.

Ideology in Branding Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ideology in Branding - Essay Example Good ideologies make a business enterprise to prosper despite the strong wave of competition in the world of business today. Thos paper highlights how ideology helps in branding in Apple and Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC). Ideology in Apple Apple Company is among the best performing companies in the world. Its brands such as computers, tablets, and mobile phones continue to dominate the market. There is an increase in usage of the Apple’s products in the world. The Company enjoys a continued flow of loyal customers from all over the globe. Mobile phones such as iphone, ipad, and ipod touch users have a wide range of applications. The secret behind the big leaps of success in Apple lies in its branding strategy (O’Grady, 2008:5). The sound ideology in branding has propelled the Apple Company to enjoy enduring success in the competitive business environment. Apple business strategies and practices adapts to the ever-changing world. The branding ideologies in Apple Company p reserve the core values while stimulating its progress to achieve superior long-term performance. To keep them strong in the market, Apple manufactures products that suits customer demands and preferences. The branding ideologies constantly changes to fit the people’s lifestyles. The branding ideologists have developed a glossy product with a simple advertisement that captures the attention across all ages (O’Grady, 2008:23). ... This has helped the company to monitor and respond to the customers’ demands. Apple Company considers and cares its consumers. The company demonstrates this through taking the product beyond the basic function. It has transformed its products into a status symbol that accommodates the requirement of the customers (O’Grady, 2008:35). Ideology in Understanding Brand and Methods The branding ideology helps the Apple Company to compete in very competitive and vibrant markets. The participants in the electronic markets include personal computer industries and software, the consumer electronic industry that sells ipod. Other players comprise of digital music distribution through the iTunes, smart phone market with the Apple iphone, and ipad tablet-computing device. Apple Company is in the process of establishing an advertising tool in the presence to its competitor Google in the advertising markets through its Appications business and iAd network. Apple has concentrated in cr eating innovative products and services that are in line with technological advancement for a long time. The Apple Macintosh computer products functions as digital for hub for digital services. These include the Apple ipod, cellular phones, digital video, and cameras. The company has advanced and has incorporate customer experience in their strategies. The company offers harmonised, synchronised, and integrated user experience across all its principal products. It uses iCloud as the hub. This is in line with their competence to deliver exceptional experience through quality user interfaces. The company bases its strategy around this goal with the iTunes, the iPhone with touch screen re-used on iPad. The Apple Apps

Contributions of Functionalist Approaches to Translation

Contributions of Functionalist Approaches to Translation INTRODUCTION The 1980s saw the birth of a number of approaches to Translation Studies (TS henceforth) collectively termed functionalist, which brought about a paradigm shift in the system. This essay examines the strengths and weaknesses as well as the contributions of these functionalist approaches to the field of TS. Structurally, the essay starts with a brief historical overview of the approaches to translation before the advent of functionalist approaches. Then it discusses the major functionalist approaches, highlighting their major postulations and the criticisms against them, which will then be followed by a general summary of the various contributions of the various strands of functionalism. TRANSLATION STUDIES BEFORE FUNCTIONALISM Over the years, scholars have approached the discipline of Translation Studies from various angles largely depending on the dominant philosophy of the time and/or underlying conceptions of the nature of translation and how the translated text will be used (Schaeffner 2001: c5). However, one dilemma that has prevailed over the centuries is the decision on the best method of translating a text. This dilemma of the best method of translating is an age-old one. Jerome (395/2004: 24) expresses this dilemma thus: It is difficult, when following the lines of another, not to overshoot somewhere and arduous, when something is well put in another language, to preserve this same beauty in translationif I translate word by word, it sounds absurd; it out of necessity I alter something in the order or diction, I will seem to have abandoned the task of a translator. However, Jerome and indeed many other translator of his time end up not translating word by word. He quotes Cicero as observing that in his translation of Platos Protagoras and Xenophones Oeconomicus, that he kept their meanings but with their forms their figures, so to speak in words adapted to our idiom (395/2004: 23). He adds that except for the case of Sacred Scriptures, where the very order of the words is a mystery I render not word for word, but sense for sense (395/2004: 25) so as not to sound absurd in the target language. These scholars, including others like Nicolas Perrot DAblancourt (1640/2004), Martin Luther (1530) and John Dryden (1680/2004), may not be seen as translations scholars per se since they all had their respective vocations and translation was what they did in the passing. However, their views and comments formed the bedrock on which the field of translation studies was to be built. Linguistic-based approaches The argument over word by word or sense for sense translation prevailed over the centuries up till the 20th century when Jakobson (1959/2004) introduced the term equivalence in the literature and Nida (1964/2004) expands it by distinguishing between formal and dynamic equivalence. While formal equivalence aims at matching the message in the receptor language as closely as possible to the different elements in the source language, including the form and content, dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression, and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture (Nida 1964/2004: 156). According to Nida, the purposes of the translator to a large extent determine whether the translator should aim at formal equivalence or dynamic equivalence. One observes that these scholars are concerned with the correspondence between the target language and the source language and these approaches were thus collectively called linguistic approaches to translation. According to Saldanha (2009: 148), the term linguistic approaches to translation studies is used to refer to theoretical models that represent translation and/ or interpreting as a (primarily) linguistic process and are therefore informed mainly by linguistic theory. Translation studies was subsumed under applied linguistics and thus studied with methods developed in linguistics (Schaeffner 2001: 6). Other scholars that contributed to research in this area are Catford (1965) and House (1977/1981). Translation was seen as a transfer of information from one language to another, as an activity that affects just the two languages involved. Thus scholars were concerned with prescribing methods of translating from one language to the other in order to reproduce in the target langua ge a message that is equivalent to that of the source text. One such prescription was Vinay and Dabelnets (1958/2994) seven methods or procedures for translation: borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, equivalence and adaptation. The first three they call direct translations as they involve transposing the source language message element by element, while the last four they call oblique because they involve an upsetting of the syntactic order of the source language. One major shortcoming of linguistic approaches is that they do not take cognisance of the contribution of the context in which an expression is used to the understanding of the whole message or text. Schaeffner (2001: 8 9) observes that Studies conducted within a linguistic-based approach to translation concentrated on the systematic relations between units of the language systems, but often abstracted from aspects of their contextual use. A chosen TL-form may well be correct according to the rules of the language system, but this does not necessarily mean that the text as a whole appropriately fulfils its communicative function in the TL situation and culture. Working on the translation of the Bible, Nidas distinction between formal and dynamic equivalence introduced aspects of sociolinguistics and culture into translation studies. He says that any discussion of equivalence, whether formal or dynamic, must consider types of relatedness determined by the linguistic and cultural distance between the codes used to convey the message (1964/2004: 157). He declares that a natural translation or dynamic equivalence involves two principal areas of adaptation, namely, grammar and lexicon (2004: 163). However, his theory has been criticised for being restricted in application and scope as it appears to be meant mainly for Bible translations and to focus on just lexical and syntactic correspondence. A few years later, Koller (1979: 215f) proposes five categorisation of the concept of equivalence namely: textralinguistic facts/state of affairs (denotative equivalence); form of verbalisation, including connotations, style and (connotative equivalence); text norms and language norms (text-normative equivalence); TL-text audience (pragmatic equivalence); and specific aesthetic, formal , characteristic features of text (formal-aesthetic equivalence) (quoted in Schaeffner 2001: 9) This too receives a lot of criticisms which apparently inform its review by the author over the years. Pym (1997: 1) observes that four editions of Kollers book Einfà ¼hrung in die ÃÅ"bersetzungswissenschaft (Introduction to Translation Studies/Science) has been published as at 1995, with an article summarising the main points appearing in English in Target. Indeed the concept of equivalence was (and still is) highly controversial even to this day. Textlinguistic approaches In reaction to the apparent rather restricted linguistic scope of these approaches, some scholars then argue for a text-linguistic or pragmatic approach to translation, whereby the whole text is seen as the unit of meaning and translation, as against the lexicon and grammar which was the focus of linguistic approaches. Katharina Reisss (1971/2004) text-typology is seminal in this respect, being about the first to introduce into TS a consideration of the communicative purpose of translation (Munday 2008: 74). According to Reiss, the communicative function of a text in its source culture determines its function in the target culture and how it will be translated. She classifies text-type into informative (communicates content), expressive (communicates artistically organised content) and operative (communicates content with a persuasive character) (Reiss 1971/2004: 171). In her view, a text that is adjudged informative should be translated in such a way that the same content in the sou rce text is transferred into the target text; an expressive text should retain the artistic and creative features of the source text in the target text; while an operative source text should inform a target text with a similar or analogous effect on the target audience. In situations where a text exhibits features of more than one text-type, the translator should concern themselves with foregrounding the overriding text-type and back-grounding the rest if the need so arises. Reiss does a lot to stress the importance of text-variety or genre in translation studies. She observes that genre conventions are culture specific and the translator should consider the distinctions in genre conventions across culture so as not to endanger the functional equivalence of the TL text by naively adopting SL conventions (1971/2004: 173). Neubert (1985) and its sequel co-authored with Gregory Shreve (1992) have done a lot to emphasise the importance of genre analysis in translation studies. In the pr eface to Translation as Text, they observe the decline in influence of linguistics in translation studies and the movement towards interdisciplinarity: Translation studies has abandoned its single-minded concern with strictly linguistic issues. It has been invigorated by new ideas from other disciplines. Translation scholars no longer hesitate to adopt new ideas from information science, cognitive science, and psychology. (Neubert and Shreve 1992: vii) Scholars that favour this approach focus a lot on setting up prototypes of genres, or as Corbett (2009: 291) puts it, these scholars focused on the descriptions of highly predictable, ritual, transactional texts, many of which seem banal in nature like Swales (1990) on reprint requests and Eggins (1994) on recipes. Thus scholars tried to identify parallel texts across languages and cultures by doing a systematic comparison of genre exemplars in both the source culture and the target culture (Schaeffner 2001: 11). Schaeffner also notes elsewhere that [g[enre conventions are determined by culture and, thus, prone to constant change (2000: 222). This enables the translator to adapt the text to the conventions of the receptor or target culture. Thus scholars operating within a text-linguistic approach to translation believe that a translation goes beyond language to cultural considerations. FUNCTIONALIST APPROACHES The second half of the 20th century witnessed some paradigm shift in translation studies, especially with the publication in German of Katharina Reiss and Hans Vermeers Foundation for a General Theory of Translation and Justa Holz-Manttaris Translatorial Action: Theory and Method, both in 1984. These set the pace for what is later known as functionalist approaches to translation, approaches that see translation as a communicative action carried out by an expert in intercultural communication (the translator), playing the role of a text producer and aiming at some communicative purpose (Nord 2001: 151). Functionalist approaches generally believe that the function of a text in the target culture determines the method of translation. They are said to have developed in opposition to the equivalence paradigm of the linguistic-based approaches which see the source text as what determines the nature of the target text. Using the communication scheme of SOURCE-PATH-GOAL, they accentuate the importance of the target text as the goal of the translational process. One of the major proponents, Vermeer (1987: 29) declares that linguistics alone is not effective because translation itself is not merely nor primarily a linguistic process, and that linguistics has not yet formulated the right questions to tackle our problems (cited in Nord 1997: 10). Quite a good number of translation scholars subscribe to functionalism like Vermeer (1978, 1989, 1996; Reiss and Vermeer 1984, 1991; Nord 1997, 2005; Holz-Manttari 1984, 1993; Honig 1997; Honig and Kussmaul 1982, 1996; among many others. Following are some of the major strands of functionalism. Skopostheorie The most popular among the functionalist approaches, skopos theory was developed in Germany by Hans Vermeer in 1978 in dissatisfaction with the linguistic-based approaches to translation. He sees translation as an action governed by a skopos from Greek meaning purpose or aim. This purpose now determines how the translation is done. Vermeer argues that the source text is produced for a situation in the source culture which may not be the same in the target culture. It then follows that the translation should be produced to suit the purpose for which it is needed in the target culture: the source text is oriented towards, and is in any case bound to, the source culture. The target textis oriented towards the target culture, and it is this which ultimately defines its adequacy (Vermeer 1989/2004: 229). Reiss and Vermeer jointly published Translatorial Action: Theory and Method in 1984 to give what has been described as the general translation theory, sufficiently general, and sufficient ly complex, to cover a multitude of individual cases (Schaeffner 1998: 236). They see a text as an offer of information and translation as an offer of information existing in a particular language and culture to members of another culture in their language. They hold that the needs of the target text receivers determine the specification of the skopos and the selection made from information offered in the source text (Schaeffner 1998: 236). Thus translation goes beyond linguistic considerations to also encompass cultural issues. The question then arises: Who determines the skopos? According to Vermeer (1989/2004: 236), the skopos is defined by the commission and if necessary adjusted by the translator. Nord (1997:30) adds that the skopos is embedded in the translation brief, which means that the person initiating the translation invariably decides what the skopos is. She agrees with Vermeer that the skopos is often negotiated between the client and the translator. The skopos of a text in the source culture might be the same as the skopos of the translation in the target culture, but that is just one of the different purposes for which a text might be needed in a different culture as the purpose in the target culture might be different. Reiss and Vermeer (1984) call the situation where the source text function is the same as the target text function functional constancy, while for the other situation where both texts have different functions they say the text has undergone a change of function. Vermeer also gives two further rules: coherence rule and fidelity rule. Coherence rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent for the target audience to understand given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances while the fidelity rule focuses on the intertextual relationship between the source text and the target text (Schaeffner 1998: 236). The nature of this intertextual coherence between the source text and target is however determined by the skopos. The theory of translatorial action This theory, proposed by Holz-Manttari, draws a lot from action theory and communication theory. An action is generally seen as doing something intentionally, and communication basically means transferring information from one entity to another. Holz-Mantarris theory then sees translation as transferring information embedded in one culture to receivers in another culture, and the translator is the expert saddled with the responsibility of this information transfer. Using concepts from communication theory, Holz-Mantarri identifies the players in the translatorial process: the initiator, the person in need of the translation; the commissioner, the person that contacts the translator; the source text producer or author; the target text producer, the translator or translation agency; the target text user, teachers for example; and the target text recipient, for example students in a target users class. She does a lot to emphasise the role played by these participants in the translationa l process. The need for a translation arises in situations where there is information in a particular culture that members of another culture do not have access to as a result of the cultural differences among the communities, or as Nord (1997: 17) puts it, situations where differences in verbal and non-verbal behaviour, expectations, knowledge and perspectives are such that there is not enough common ground for the sender and receiver to communicate effectively by themselves. Translation then is a process of intercultural communication aimed at producing a text capable of functioning appropriately in specific situations and contexts of use (Schaeffner 1998: 3). And since the focus is on producing functionally adequate texts, the target text should then conform to the genre conventions of the target culture. This makes the translator the expert in translatorial action, who determines what is suitable for the translatorial text operation and ensures the information is transmitted satisfactorily. One interesting aspect of this theory is the introduction of new terminologies into the literature. For example, instead of text, Holz-Mantarri prefers Botschaftstrà ¤ger, message carrier, a concept that broadens the traditional concept of text to include non-verbal aspects of communication thereby doing justice to the complexity of communicative processes (Martin de Leon 2008: 7). Other changes include Botschaftstrà ¤gerproduktion for text production and translatorisches Handeln for translate or translation. The principle of the necessary degree of precision This principle was developed by Honig and Kusmaul to provide a more detailed account of translation relevant decision-making processes as against the framework theory of translation (Honig 1997: 10). One of the outcomes of functionalist approaches is that the translator can give more information in the translation if the skopos requires that. An instance is making clear in a target text what is not so clear in the source text. However, it is not clear to what extent the translator can exercise this liberty. To this end, the principle stipulates that what is necessary depends on the function of the translation (Honig 1997: 10). Honig illustrates this in this rather long quote: the term public school implies such a large amount of culture-specific knowledge that it is impossible to render its meaning completely in a translation. Within a functionalist approach, however, the function of a word in its specific context determines to what degree the cultural meaning should be made explicit. In a sentence such as (my emphasis): (2a) In Parliament he fought for equality, but he sent his son to Eton. the translation will have to be different from translating the identical term Eton in the sentence: (3a) When his father died his mother could not afford to sent him to Eton any more. The following translations would be sufficiently detailed: (2b) Im Parlament kà ¤mpfte er fà ¼r Chancengleichheit, aber seinen eigenen Sohn schickte er auf eine der englischen Eliteschulen. (one of the English elite schools) (3b) Als sein Vater starb, konnte seine Mutter es sich nicht mehr leisten, ihn auf eine der teuren Privatschulen zu schicken (one of the expensive private schools). Of course, there is more factual knowledge implied in the terms Eton or public school than expressed in the translation, but the translation mentions everything that is important within the context of the sentence, in other words, the translation is semantically precise enough. (1997: 11) Here the translator does not aim at an exact or perfect target text, but a text that is sufficiently good enough for the situation. The translator provides as much (or less) information as the readers need as determined by the skopos. Christiane Nord Christiane Nord is one of the major proponents of functionalism. She agrees with Vermeer that the situation under which a target text is produced is different from that of the source text in terms of time, place (except for simultaneous interpreting), and sometimes medium. Thus the meaning of a text is found beyond the linguistic code, in the extratextual situation. In fact, she even stresses that meaning interpretation depends a lot on the personal experience of the text user: A text is made meaningful by its receiver for its receiver. Different receivers (or even the same receiver at different times) find different meanings in the same linguistic material offered by the text. We might even say that a text is as many texts as there are receivers of it. (2001: 152) Nord however has some reservations for the unrestricted freedom Reiss and Vermeer, and Holz-Manttari have given the translator to produce a target text of whatever form so long as it conforms to the skopos as directed by the client. To check this, she introduces the concept of loyalty which she defines as the responsibility translators have towards their partners: translators, in their role as mediators between two cultures, have a special responsibility with regard to their partners, i.e. the source text author, the client or commissioner of the translation, and the target text receivers, and towards themselves, precisely in those cases where there are differing views as to what a good translation is or should be. (Nord 2006: 33). Nord thus contends that the skopos is not the only determining factor in translation, that loyalty is necessary. Loyalty commits the translator bilaterally to the source text and target text situations: not to falsify the source text authors intentions (Nord 2005:32) and fulfilling the expectations of the target audience or explaining in a footnote or preface how they arrived at a particular meaning. Loyalty is different from fidelity or equivalence in that the latter refer to the linguistic or stylistic similarity between the source and the target texts, regardless of the communicative intentions involved while the former refers to an interpersonal relationship between the translator and their partners (2001: 185). Christiane Nord also elaborates on the possible range of functions a target text may have, different from that or those of the source text. She first distinguishes between documentary translation and instrumental translation. Documentary translation is such that aims at producing in the target language a kind of document of (certain aspects of) a communicative interaction in which a source-culture sender communicates with a source-culture audience via the source text under source-culture conditions (1997: 138); instrumental translation, on the other hand, aims at producing in the target language an instrument for a new communicative interaction between the source-culture sender and the target-culture audience. A documentary translation usually results in a target text with a meta-textual function or secondary level function according to House (1977). An instrumental translation may have the same range of functions as the source text, whereby it is said to be equifunctional; but if th ere are differences in the functions of both texts, the case is said to be heterofunctional. Nord also talks about homologous translation, also called creative transposition (Bassnet 2002: 24), where the target text represent the same degree of originality as the original in relation to the respective culture-specific corpora of texts. One other seminal input of Nords into functionalism is her call for an elaborate analysis of the source text before translation proper. Unlike Vermeer and Holz-Manttari who almost make the source text so invisible, Nord rather gives some attention to it since it is the provider of the offer of information that forms the basis for the offer of information formulated in the target text. She argues that the pre-translation analysis of the source text helps in deciding on whether the translation project is feasible in the first place, which source text units are relevant to a functional translation, and which strategy will best produce a target text that meets the requirements of the brief (Nord 1997: 62). Nord goes further to identify and categorise the kind of problems a translator might encounter pragmatic, convention-related, interlingual and text-specific and also steps to follow in the translational process. Schaeffner (2001) has done a critical review of Nords postulations (and indeed other functionalist approaches) and their applicability in practical translation. CONTROVERSIES SURROUNDING FUNCTIONALIST APPROACHES TO TRANSLATION Expectedly, functionalist approaches have received a lot of criticism, especially from scholars of the linguistic-based approaches, one of which is the definition of translation. Critics of skopos theory argue that not all target texts based on a source text can be called translations, that skopos theory makes no distinction between a real translation and adaptation or what Koller (1995) calls nontranslation. They argue that the supposed dethronement of the source text and focus on the target text (Newmark 1991; Schreitmuller 1994) subverts the intrinsic meaning of the translation. Pym (1997) argues in this light and supports Koller (1995) in upholding equivalence and calling on functionalists to distinguish between translation and nontranslation. However, functionalists view translation from a broader perspective, as any translational action where a source text is transferred into a target culture and language Nord 1997: 141). They see the linguistic-based definition as being restri ctive and in need of expansion. Linked to this is the supposed dethronement of the source text and emphasis on the skopos as the determining factor of how the translation is done. It is then argued that functionalism gives translators the freedom to produce any kind of target text and call it a translation. Pym (1991), for instance, accuses functionalists of producing mercenary experts able to fight under the flag of any purpose able to pay them (1991: 2). Nord responds to this by introducing the concept of loyalty, which restricts the liberty of the translator as they are now expected to be loyal to the source text author as well as other partners in the translational process. She also insists on an elaborate source text analysis before translation for a better understanding of both the source text and source culture which will then engender some high level coherence between the source text and the target text. One other controversy surrounding functionalism is the myriad of terminologies introduced and used differently, especially those by Holz-Manttarri. Indeed many of these criticisms still go on to this day. However, despite the various controversies surrounding the development and thrust of functionalist approaches, their contributions to the study of translation are remarkable. CONTRIBUTIONS OF FUNCTIONALIST APPROACHES TO TRANSALTION STUDIES One major contribution of this approach is that, according to Nord (1997: 29), it addresses the eternal dilemmas of free vs faithful translations, dynamic vs formal equivalence, good interpreters vs slavish translators, and so on. Thus a translation may be free of faithful or anything between these two extremes depending on its skopos or the purpose for which it is needed. The translator no longer has to always go back to the source text to solve translational problems, rather they base their translation on the function of the text in the target culture. Functionalist approaches liberate translation from theories that impose linguistic rules upon every decision (Pym 2010: 56). They recognise that the translation process involves more than languages involved and requires the consideration of these extra-textual and extra-linguistic factors for its actualisation. Thus they introduce the cultural dimension to translation studies and break the unnecessary recourse to the authority of the source text. While linguistics-based approaches may be said to be retrospective in that they look back at the source text as the model for the target text, functionalist approaches are seen as prospective in that they look forward to the function of the text in the target culture as the major determining factor for how the translation will be done. A retrospective translation operates a bottom-up process, works from source language elements and transfers the text sentence by sentence, or phrase by phrase. But a prospective translation operates a top-down process, starting on the pragmatic level by deciding on the intended function of the translation and asking for specific text-typological conventions, and for addressees background knowledge and their communicative needs ( Ouyang 2009: 104). Functionalist approaches are flexible and general enough to account for a wide range of translational situations. Talking about the theory of skopos theory for example, Schaeffner (2001: 15) observes that [t]his theory is presented as being sufficiently general to cover a multitude of individual cases, i.e. to be independent of individual languages, cultures, subject domains, text types and genres. Interestingly, the consideration of extra-textual factors in the translational process accentuates the multidisciplinary nature of translation studies. The introduction of text-typology and considerations of genre-conventions introduces elements of pragmatics, text-linguistics and culture studies into the discourse. So also is the belief that a text does not have a stable intrinsic meaning, but that meaning is affected by the subjective translator as well as by the cultural, historical, ideological and historical circumstances surrounding the production of the text (Schaeffner 2001: 12). Tied to the quality of flexibility mentioned above is functionalisms apparent accommodation of the shortcomings of some other translation theories. For example, Baker (2007) criticises the polysystem theory (Even-Zohar 1990) and Tourys (1995) theory of norms for encouraging analysts to focus on repeated, abstract, systematic behaviour and privileging strong patterns of socialization into that behaviour and for glossing over the numerous individual and group attempts at undermining dominant patterns and prevailing political and social dogma (Baker 2007: 152). She also expressed some dissatisfaction with Venutis dichotomies of foreignizing and domesticating strategies (Venuti 1993, 1995), also called minoritizing and majoritizing strategies (Venuti 1998), for, inter alia, reducing the intricate means by which a translator negotiates his or her way around various aspects of a text into a more-or-less straightforward choice of foreignizing versus domesticating strategy (Baker 2007: 152). However, these criticisms have been adequately taken care of by functionalist approaches whose methodology would not be seen as been that straitjacketed, with no room for flexibility. By their very nature, functionalist approaches bridge the gap between mere theorising and the practice of translation, as they suggest practical ways of going about translational problems. Before the advent of functionalist approaches, the translator is rarely noticed. Emphasis was on the source text and its supposed equivalent, the target text. No attention is paid to the identity or status of the translator in the translational process. On the one hand, the translator is seen as not being original, as merely performing a technical stunt (Honig 1985: 13) of transferring an original authors ideas into a different language. On the other hand, the translators identity is hidden when they produce texts that sound so fluent in the target culture as it they wer